How The Model Works - as simple as possible, but not any simpler

An expanding 3D universe

The elementary particle

The four base particles

Atom formation

Particle and antiparticle

Multiple universes

This physics model consists of a universe that, as a suggestion, starts as a point source, which once formed

Then continuously increases in size as a spherical three dimensional* volume of space

*Is there a physical meaning to the mathematical concepts of one, two, three, four, etc. dimensions?

The model contains one type of elementary particle, a strand shaped particle, that as a suggestion

Is created in a continuous manner at the expanding edge of the universe's volume of space

(Or if you prefer, the Big Bang suggestion can be used)

As a suggestion, the strand shaped particle moves continuously at a single constant speed, in relation to the model's static universal reference frame

And whose interaction is that it tends to stick to other strand shaped particles

When their surfaces touch

The dense population of strand shaped particles created at the expanding edge of the universe

Interact to form the model's first right-handed and left-handed neutrinos

And these interact to form the model's first electrons, positrons, right-handed 'neutral' particles, and left-handed 'neutral' particles

The following animation shows a simple sequence of the elementary strand shaped particle, tagged one behind the other, building the model's four base particles - the neutrino, electron, positron, 'neutral' particle; the  Particles  button steps through the process, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

As a suggestion

Some of the neutrinos join side-by-side

To form the model's first particles of light

And

Some of the positrons and electrons join side-by-side

And as a suggestion, the particles split open and also form the model's first particles of light

And

Some of the left-handed and right-handed 'neutral' particles join side-by-side

And as a suggestion, the particles split open and also form the model's first particles of light

But also

Some of the positrons become sandwiched between a left-handed and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

To form the model's first protons

And

The protons couple with electrons

To form the model's first hydrogen atoms

And

Some of the electrons become sandwiched between a left-handed and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

To form the model's first antiprotons

And

The antiprotons couple with positrons

To form the model's first antihydrogen atoms

In addition, in the model

A neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

And an antineutron is an antiproton with a positron embedded into the side of the antiproton

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

By some mechanism (unknown), if in the model, either protons or antiprotons were formed in a greater number

Then once all annihilations have taken place, either some protons and some electrons would be left over to form hydrogen atoms

Or some antiprotons and some positrons would be left over to form antihydrogen atoms

Simply as a thought, in its processes, life on earth has evolved to use only one, of the possible forms of certain chiral molecules

I wonder, if once a proton or an antiproton has been formed

Could there be a process which uses that formation to seed copies of itself

Traditionally, our universe is considered as consisting of ordinary matter, with little if any antimatter in the universe

And that ordinary matter consists of particles, as opposed to antiparticles

But this physics model is different

Throughout this physics model's universe, at every location

The number of particles

Is the same as the number of antiparticles

That is, on dismantling the components of an atom

The number of electrons is the same as the number of positrons

And the number of right-handed 'neutral' particles is the same as the number of left-handed 'neutral' particles

Whether a universe is created by something

And that something is itself created by something else ad infinitum

Or whether a universe comes into existence from nothing

Is not clear, for both seem to have difficulties in logic

Multiple universes would also seem to be an inevitable outcome

Although in such cases, perhaps

The universes may not be able to detect each other

If two universes come into existence without either having caused the other to form

Then as suggestion, the two universes are likely to exist

At an infinite distance apart from each other

This can perhaps, be proposed by considering an arbitrary distance surrounding a universe, say ten of its 'universe widths', and asking

What is the chance of another universe forming inside that distance

Compared to the chance of that new universe forming in the distance beyond that 'ten universe width'?

Since the distance of the nothing beyond is infinite

The new universe would perhaps, be more likely to form in the infinite beyond

Than in the arbitrary 'ten universe width', and that is true for whatever size of arbitrary width is chosen

In effect

Each universe would seem as if it were the only universe in existence

Even if it is not

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The elementary strand shaped particle

The types of subatomic particles

Antiparticles

Wave-like behaviour

The Standard Model

Mathematical form of this physics model

Philosophical question

In this physics model, the elementary particle is a strand shaped particle

That has a shape, and a size, and a surface

And at any one moment in time, a specific position in three dimensional space

In the model, all the subatomic particles are made from the strand shaped particle

As a consequence, in the model, the subatomic particles do not have a wave-particle duality

Nor do the subatomic particles fundamentally follow a Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Nor do the subatomic particles fundamentally follow a Pauli exclusion principle

In the model, the types of subatomic particles that can be constructed from the strand shaped particle is limited

With the rules for converting one subatomic particle to another

A consequence of their construction

This makes the rules in the model

For converting one subatomic particle into another

Understood by looking at the particles

For example, in the model, the difference between the positron and the electron

Is that the positron is a left-handed torus

And the electron is a right-handed torus

And the difference between an antiproton and a proton (in addition to the antiproton's internal electron as compared to the proton's internal positron)

Is that the antiproton has its pair of left and right 'neutral' particles that surround its internal electron, flipped 180 degrees

Compared to the proton's pair of left and right 'neutral' particles that surround its internal positron

In the model

The concept of particle and antiparticle

Applies only to the torus shaped particles of matter

A torus shaped particle of matter

Can be either left-handed or right-handed

Giving all the particles of matter a particle and an antiparticle form

When a matching pair of particle and antiparticle matter particles touch side-by-side, the gaps on their torus rings, caused by their escaping electric fields, can align

As a suggestion, when the gaps on the touching torus rings align, the touching torus rings can break open and form a left-handed helix that is side-by-side with a right-handed helix, which is a particle of light

When a particle of light is formed in this way, then the left and right helix portions of the light will always be of equal lengths

In the model

The concept of particle and antiparticle does not apply to light or neutrinos

As light and neutrinos are already in a helix form

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

The model uses streams of the electric field particles to produce wave-like behaviour

Such as the wave-like behaviour of electrons in the atom

And the wave-like behaviour of light in the double-slit experiment, and the variation in the reflection of light from glass

In the Standard model of particle physics, the elementary particles are based on quantum field theory, where elementary particles are excited states (also referred to as quanta) of their underlying fields

In a sense, the quantum fields in the Standard Model are more fundamental than the elementary particles themselves

Quantum fields are different to particles, in that quantum fields are relativistic waves spread out in space

In this physics model

The shape of a particle

Is important

The mathematical form of this physics model

Is a physics engine that models the behaviour, of a three dimensional strand shaped particle

That moves continuously at a single constant speed, against a static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

The elementary strand shaped particle has one interaction, touch at its surface

When a strand shaped particle encounters another strand shaped particle, the two particles tend to stick together

And while in contact, they influence each other's direction of travel

The various behaviours of every particle and every object in the model

Is a consequence of the continuous constant speed of the strand shaped particle

And a consequence of the shapes of the subatomic particles that are formed from the strand shaped particle

If required to summarise the behaviour of the high level subatomic particles in the model into equations, such as the equations found in the mathematical formulation of the Standard model of particle physics

Then the physics engine that models the behaviour of the strand shaped particle would need to be run on a computer, and the behaviour of the subsequently created high level subatomic particles observed, and that observed behaviour summarised into equations

Attempting to model the high level subatomic particles that come out of the model, with stand alone equations, might not be useful

There is the question

How 'abruptly' does the surface of the strand shaped particle end?

It may be that the boundary of the strand shaped particle is a gradient of density that reduces down across distance

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2021) of Arvin Ash discussing particles and forces

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Continuous constant movement

Creating the subatomic particles

Inertia and momentum of light and matter

Inertia and momentum are different things

The speed of light

In this physics model

Motion comes from the model's elementary strand shaped particle

Moving continuously at a single constant speed, against the model's universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

In the model, the yardsticks of speed, length and rate of time are dependent on one another

At the lowest level, the model's yardsticks of speed, length and time

Are defined by the continuous single constant speed of the elementary strand shaped particle, and they are yardsticks that do not vary

Having the strand shaped particle locked into a continuous constant speed, does not mean that everything in the model must then move at that constant speed

As a suggestion, the strand shaped particles tend to stick to one another when their surfaces touch, and by curling the strand shaped particle into a helix, particles can be formed that move forward through space at a slower speed than the simple straight-line speed of the strand shaped particles themselves

And by curling the helixes into toruses, particles can be formed that can move forward through space at varying speeds, including not moving at all

In the model

The neutrino and particles of light are created by curling the strand shaped particles into helixes

And the electron, positron, left-handed 'neutral' particle, right-handed 'neutral' particle, are created by curling the helixes into toruses

In the model

The proton is created by sandwiching a positron between a left-handed 'neutral' particle and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

And the neutron is created by embedding an electron into the side of a proton

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

In the model, everything is constructed from the elementary strand shaped particle

A particle that moves continuously at a single constant speed

Against the model's static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

The continuous constant speed of the strand shaped particles

Give the particle of light and the neutrino a continuous forward motion

This results in the particle of light and the neutrino in the model having persistent momentum

The particles of matter are torus shaped particles

And the natural state of the particles of matter

Is to be stationary with respect to the model's static universal reference frame

With the strand shaped particles in a particle of matter, moving continuously at a single constant speed

For a torus shaped particle of matter to move forwards

The particle of matter's perfectly round torus shape has to distort

The strand shaped particles inside a particle of matter stick together and continuously pull a distorted particle of matter back into its perfectly round torus shape

This gives a particle of matter a persistent resistance to being moved, with respect to the model's static universal reference frame

In the model, a particle of matter has persistent inertia, but not persistent momentum

For a particle of matter to gain persistent forward movement

The particle of matter needs to be pushed along by something that has persistent momentum

Such as a particle of light

In the model, a particle of matter obtains persistent momentum

When a particle of light attaches itself to the particle of matter

(Which is why particles of matter in the model do not move faster than light)

In the model, momentum and inertia have different causes

Particles of matter have persistent inertia and therefore they have mass

But the particles of matter do not have momentum

Whereas a particle of light and the neutrino have persistent momentum

But they do not have inertia

And therefore they do not have mass

When a particle of light attaches itself to a particle of matter

The particle of matter obtains momentum

At the expense of the particle of light's persistent foward movement, whose forward speed is now reduced while it pushes the particle of matter along

When the attached particle of light (or portion of the attached particle of light) is released from a particle of matter

The released particle of light's constant internal movement

Returns the released particle of light back to its natural forward speed

The following animation shows particles of light in the model attaching themselves to an electron and an electron pair, and pushing the electrons along, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

In the model, there is nothing special about the speed of light

And a particle of light experiences events

Just as any other particle experiences events

Nor is there anything special about faster than light travel

For that is how the elementary strand shaped particle moves

And as a consequence for example, the surface of the electron has a constant movement that is faster than the speed of light

It is hard to comprehend how quickly the subatomic particles themselves move

For subatomic particles can travel world-like distances

In less than a second

Perhaps one way to think of movement in the model

Is that everything in the atomic world moves at a reasonable, steady pace

And it is us who are very large, and it is us who do things very, very slowly

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Constructing the subatomic particles

Concept of electric charge

Creation of the electric field particles

Positive and negative electric fields

'Neutral' particle electric fields

In this physics model

The elementary strand shaped particle

Is used to construct the subatomic particles - the neutrino, particle of light, electron, positron, left-handed 'neutral' particle, right-handed 'neutral' particle, proton and neutron

The neutrino and particle of light are constructed

By joining the elementary strand shaped particles

Into a helix

The electron, positron and 'neutral' particle are constructed

By joining the elementary strand shaped particles

Into a torus

In the model

The proton is a positron sandwiched between a left-handed 'neutral' particle and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

And the neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

All the subatomic particles in the model have a helicity to their construction

Which can be either clockwise or anticlockwise

This gives all the particles the concept of electric charge - either 'positive' or 'negative'

In the model

Motion comes from the elementary strand shaped particle

Moving continuously at a single constant speed, against the model's static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

As a suggestion, electric field particles are created

By the constant speed of the head of the elementary strand shaped particle

Being greater than the constant speed of its tail

This causes each strand shaped particle to continuously extend itself

With the head of the strand shaped particle eventually breaking free

Leaving the strand shaped particle with a new head, that as a suggestion, repeats the process

This leads to a stream of helix shaped particles

That exit from the front of a helix shaped subatomic particle

Or from gaps on the surface of a torus shaped subatomic particle

In the model

The stream of helix shaped particles are the electric field particles

Please note, the animations do not show the electric field particles exiting from the subatomic particles

Each electric field particle

Has a helix shape

That has the same handiness as its parent subatomic particle itself

As a suggestion

The left-handed subatomic particles have positive electric charge, and produce left-handed positive electric field particles

And the right-handed subatomic particles have negative electric charge, and produce right-handed negative electric field particles

Since the 'neutral' particle is a left-handed torus moving inside a right-handed torus, or vice versa

The 'neutral' particle has both positive and negative electric charge

In effect

All the particles are pieces of electric charge - including the neutrino and the 'neutral' particle

All the particles produce electric field particles

In the model

The electric field particles escaping from the outer torus of a 'neutral' particle

Are unable to escape as helix shaped particles

This causes a 'neutral' particle

To produce only a positive electric field, or only a negative electric field

Depending on whether the inner torus of the 'neutral' particle is a left-handed torus, or a right-handed torus

Based on the actual mass difference between an electron and a proton, and the way in which a 'neutral' particle in the model produces its electric field

As a suggestion, the electric field from a single 'neutral' particle

Is in the order of 450 times more intense than the electric field from an electron

A 'neutral' particle

Produces an intense electric field

But itself, interacts only slightly with an electric field

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The escaping electric field particles

The electron and positron's size

The 'neutral' particle's size

The size of atoms

In this physics model

All the particles have electric fields

Including the neutrino and the 'neutral' particle

It is the electric field particles

Escaping from the torus shaped particles of matter - i.e. the electron, positron and 'neutral' particle

That causes the particles of matter to form to a fixed size

Being a closed torus (unlike the open-ended helix of the neutrino and particle of light)

As a suggestion, the internally generated electric field particles escape from the closed torus of a particle of matter

By forcing open a gap on the surface of the torus

As a suggestion

The torus shaped particles of matter are initially formed from long helixes

And when the electric field particles escape from the closed torus, the escaping electric field particles, as a suggestion

Drag some of the strand shaped particles from the torus

With the diameter of the torus getting smaller

The outer surface of the torus starts to have gaps

Making it easier for a lesser density of the electric field particles to force open a gap and escape

This continues until the torus reaches a minimum number of strand shaped particles - with a surface that is now prone to gaps

Where the now lesser density of the escaping electric field particles, as a suggestion

Are no longer able to drag further strand shaped particles from the torus

When this point is reached

The electric field particles escape from the torus shaped particle of matter in repeating pulses

But without further reducing the number of the strand shaped particles in the torus

The escaping electric field particles

Result in the electron and positron torus shaped particles forming to a set number of strand shaped particles

And therefore to a set mass and to a set amount of electric charge

In the case of the 'neutral' particle, as a suggestion

The overlapping pair of toruses

Cause the set size of the 'neutral' particle to be greater than the set size of the electron and the positron

As a suggestion

The 'neutral' particle has a greater mass than that of the electron and the positron

And contains a greater amount of electric charge than that of the electron and the positron

When the double torus 'neutral' particle of matter is formed from helixes of different lengths, then as a suggestion

The longer helix, once it is bent around into the closed torus shape

Is stripped of its strand shaped particles first, by the escaping electric field particles

When the lengths of the two helixes become the same

The strand shaped particles are stripped equally from both helixes

Both helixes now being in the closed torus shape

As a suggestion

The final size of a 'neutral' particle has a slightly larger outer torus than inner torus

Causing a 'neutral' particle to not quite have balanced amounts of positive and negative electric charge

Since a proton contains a pair of left and right 'neutral' particles

The overall positive naked charge of a proton

Remains as that of its internal positron

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

It is hard to visualise how small atoms and the subatomic particles are

For example, the number of atoms in one of your hands is roughly equal to 10²⁴ atoms

That is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms (derived using Avogadro's constant)

As a way to visualise the number of atoms in one of your hands

That number of atoms as soft drink cans would cover the entire world in cans

The cans stacked 200 miles high, over every inch of the world

Teotihuacán in Mexico

Image by Wikipedia user JOMA-MAC

Grassland in Pampas Brazil

Image by Wikipedia user Scheridon

Negev Desert in Israel

Image by Wikipedia user Andrew Shiva

The world

Image by Wikipedia user Emilfaro

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The concept of electric charge

Electric field particles escape in pulses

One interaction for everything

Matter particles and electric field interactions

Attraction and repulsion examples

Magnetic fields

The subatomic particles

The neutrino, particle of light, electron, positron, left-handed 'neutral' particle, right-handed 'neutral' particle, proton, neutron

All contain a helicity to their construction that can be clockwise or anticlockwise

This produces the concept of a particle's electric charge

Either positive or negative

With the 'neutral' particle consisting of both positive and negative electric charge

The subatomic particles

Produce their electric field particles, positive or negative

According to the helicity of the strand shaped particles that are contained in the subatomic particle

The electric field particles that are created inside a particle of matter (which is a closed torus, unlike the open-ended helix of the neutrino and particle of light)

Build up, and as a suggestion

Eventually escape from the particle of matter by forcing open a gap on the surface of the torus

On escaping

The gap on the surface of the torus closes, and the process starts again

This results in the electric field particles escaping from a particle of matter in repeating pulses

In the model

The proton is a positron sandwiched between a left-handed 'neutral' particle and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

And the neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

The model's elementary strand shaped particle has one interaction

When a strand shaped particle encounters another strand shaped particle

The two particles tend to stick together, and while in contact, they influence each other's direction of travel

A particle of matter has a torus shape, and the interaction of the electric field particles with the strand shaped particles that make up the particle of matter

Cause the strand shaped particles in the particle of matter, to bunch up on one side or other

And the particle of matter in the electric field, moves

The strongest interaction occurs

When an electric field particle touches the particle of matter side-by-side

With the electric field particle moving in the plane of the particle of matter's torus shape

And the weakest, or no interaction at all, occurs

When an electric field particle touches the particle of matter

At right angles to the plane of particle of matter's torus shape

When the touching surfaces of the electric field particle and the particle of matter, are either in some way

Both moving in the same direction (both 'up', or both 'down')

The strand shaped particles on that side of the particle of matter will stretch out

When the touching surfaces are, in some way

Both moving in opposite directions (one 'up' and the other 'down')

The strand shaped particles on that side of the particle of matter will compress up

Electron example

When a negative electron interacts with a negative electric field particle

The internal movement of the electron bunches up on the side of the electron that is moving away from the source of the negative field

And the negative electron as a whole moves away from the source of the negative field

When a negative electron interacts with a positive electric field particle

The internal movement of the electron bunches up on the side of the electron that is moving towards the source of the positive field

And the negative electron as a whole moves towards the source of the positive field

Positron example

When a positive positron interacts with a negative electric field particle

The internal movement of the positron bunches up on the side of the positron that is moving towards the source of the negative field

And the positive positron as a whole moves towards the source of the negative field

When a positive positron interacts with a positive electric field particle

The internal movement of the positron bunches up on the side of the positron that is moving away from the source of the positive field

And the positive positron as a whole moves away from the source of the positive field

'Neutral' particle example

The slightly larger outer torus of a 'neutral' particle, to its inner torus

Gives a 'neutral' particle a small interaction with an electric field

In the same manner as the above examples

The following animation shows the model's electron, positron, 'neutral' particle, neutrino and particle of light interacting with the short and long electric field particles, the  Interaction  button steps through the interactions, the   01   input box lists the interactions for direct selection, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2010) of Professor Leonard Susskind's Stanford University lecture discussing electric fields

Here is an old video that, by discussing gravity, shows the basic concept of an electron in an electric field

Here is an old video that discusses the electron's electric field

As a note, a suggestion is required as to what a magnetic field is in this physics model

As a suggestion, in the model, a magnetic field could perhaps be an overall neutral electric field

That from each atomic point source of the electric field

The majority of the short positive electric field particles move in one direction, and the majority of the short negative electric field particles move in another direction, the two directions being at an angle to each other

Here is an old video that discusses the electron and magnetic fields

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Light in an electric field

Neutrino in an electric field

Synchronised pulsating 'neutral' particle electric fields

Light and the double-slit experiment

Light and refraction

Light and reflection

Light and transparency

Only near surfaces

Light interacting with light

As a suggestion

The positive and negative electric field particles emitted by a 'neutral' particle

Are long in length

As a suggestion

The positive and negative electric field particles emitted by an electron, or the positron that is inside a proton

Are short in length

A neutrino and a particle of light also produce electric field particles

But for the simplicity of this discussion

Are not included here

The long electric field particles from a 'neutral' particle

As a suggestion, are able to wrap around the two helixes of a particle of light, stretching out one side of the particle of light, and compressing up the other side of the light

Causing the particle of light to arc along its body and change direction

But the long electric field particles from a 'neutral' particle

Are not able to change the direction of the particle of light

When the electric field particles are moving at right angles to the particle of light

The short electric field particles from an electron, or a positron that is inside a proton

As a suggestion, are not able to wrap around a particle of light

And are not able to change the path of light

Neutrinos

Are pieces of electric charge

That are not affected by electric fields

When a long electric field particle wraps around a neutrino

Either all sides of the single helix neutrino are compressed, or all sides of the single helix neutrino are stretched

Leaving the direction of the neutrino unaltered by the electric field particle

The following animation shows the model's electron, positron, 'neutral' particle, neutrino and particle of light interacting with the short and long electric field particles, the  Interaction  button steps through the interactions, the   01   input box lists the interactions for direct selection, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

Electric field particles escape from a particle of matter

By forcing open a gap on the surface of the particle of matter

And escaping in repeating pulses

If the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields from individual nuclei were to be capable of becoming synchronised across the atoms in a substance

Then the path of a particle light could perhaps be influenced when the particle of light passes near the surface of that substance

In which case, the double-slit experiment, the refraction of light, and the reflection of light

Could perhaps be examples of this effect

In the double-slit experiment, the light, or subatomic particle that is being pushed along by a particle of light

Could perhaps be directed as a diffraction pattern around the edge of a slit

By the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields at the edge of that slit

With refraction of light into a transparent medium, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the transparent medium

Could perhaps direct the light around the inner edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is down into the transparent medium

With refraction of light out of a transparent medium, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the transparent medium

Could perhaps direct the light around the outer edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is parallel with the surface of the transparent medium

For reflection of light from the surface of a substance, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the substance

Could perhaps direct the light away from the outer edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is parallel with the surface of the substance

On meeting the next atom, or group of atoms, on the surface of the substance

The light could perhaps be directed away from the outer edge of those atoms

And the light could perhaps then leave the surface of the substance at an angle

For total internal reflection within a transparent medium

The light could perhaps be directed away from the inner edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface of the transparent medium

And the light could perhaps then pass back into the transparent medium

In the model, the suggestion is that atoms in general direct light onto a tangential path around their nuclei

Which perhaps could be the cause of reflection and refraction

And the bending of light around small objects

The direction of light onto a tangential path around a nucleus, could perhaps be how light as a particle

Is able to pass through certain substances

Without the light colliding with the atoms in that substance, for example the atoms in air or glass

At large distances from a surface

The individual pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields from the different parts of a surface, overlap

And as a suggestion, their ability to affect light at a distance could perhaps be reduced

In the model, light is a long thin particle

This could perhaps result in little, if any deflection of light at all, when beams of light particles are crossed

(In much the same way perhaps, that throwing a javelin at a javelin, the collision is unable to cause much of a deflection)

To get light to interact with light

Individual particles of light might perhaps need to touch their bodies side-by-side

Laser light perhaps might be an example of particles of light touching their bodies side-by-side

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The travelling twin scenario

A common explanation

An alternative approach

Conclusion

Direction of time

In this physics model

Motion is in relation to a static universal reference frame

And yet in our universe no such universal reference frame has been detected

In this discussion, attention is focused on the relativistic "travelling twin" scenario

And the behaviour of a clock when in one inertial reference frame

Compared to the clock's behaviour when in a different inertial reference frame

If, as assumed in the theory of special relativity

Inertial reference frames have equivalence

Then the behaviour of the clock should be the same, regardless as to which inertial reference frame the clock is in

In the travelling twin scenario

There are apparent changes in rates of time that the twins see equally in each other

When coasting away from each other, or when coasting towards each other

But there is also an actual loss of time incurred by the travelling twin

For when the travelling twin returns home

Her clock has less time on it than her stay at home twin's clock

In this discussion

The loss of time on the travelling twin's clock is related to the distance of the journey

Any additional loss of time related to acceleration can be removed from the scenario, if required, sometimes referred to as the "three-brother" version of the scenario

To explain the travelling twin's loss of time

Something is required to be different about her time during her journey

Compared to her stay at home twin's time

A common explanation is that the loss of time is because

At some point during the journey

The travelling twin's rate of time slowed down

With that explanation

At some point in her journey

The travelling twin's now slowed rate of time, has to speed up, in order to return to the earth's rate of time

For when the travelling twin returns to earth, in the inertial reference frame of the earth, although her clock shows less time, her clock once more ticks at the same rate as other clocks tick on earth

In this common explanation

The inertial reference frame change that increased her rate of time back up to the earth's rate of time

Would require an inertial reference frame change that behaves differently

To the inertial reference frame change that slowed her rate of time down from the earth's rate of time

But that is not possible

If all inertial reference frames

Have the same behaviour

If the assumption

Is that all inertial reference frames have the same behaviour

Then a logical inconsistency occurs in the common explanation of the travelling twin's loss of time

What if the loss of time is because during her journey

The travelling twin's path through spacetime is shorter than her stay at home twin's path through spacetime

Now her rate of time does not change (referred to as proper time), as it is only her position in spacetime that changes

But at the end of the journey

The length of the travelling twin's now shorter path through spacetime, would need to lengthen

So that she can return to the longer spacetime path of her stay at home twin, and the two can once more be next to each other in spacetime

Again, this requires one inertial reference frame change to behave differently to another inertial reference frame change

The first inertial reference frame change shortens her current path in spacetime

Whereas the second inertial reference frame change lengthens her current path in spacetime

These logical inconsistencies suggest that

Any explanation that includes inertial reference frames being equivalent to one another

Will contain a logical inconsistency in their explanation as to the travelling twin's loss in time

The above logical inconsistencies suggest

That the behaviour of changing from one inertial reference frame to another

Is dependent on the movement of the inertial reference frame relative to a universal reference frame

Supporting evidence

For a universal reference frame

Also comes from the constant speed of light

When particles of light move in the same direction

They do not catch up with each other, nor do they move apart from each other

This suggests that particles of light move at their constant speed with respect to a single reference frame

If a universal reference frame is accepted as part of this physics model, then there is the question

Can that universal reference frame be detected

By things that are inside the model?

To see if the universal reference frame can be detected from inside the model

Scenarios could be investigated using a computer program of the model

And the computerised results of any real world example compared to experiment

Having a universal reference frame

Suggests that spacetime

Might perhaps be a mathematical concept

In this physics model, there is no reversal of time

The elementary strand shaped particle creates child strand shaped particles

There is no absorption of child strand shaped particles by the elementary strand shaped particle

As a suggestion, the concept of a direction to time, is related to what objects do, and is not related to time in itself

As a suggestion, time is the presence of movement with the presence of length

Time is either present, or it is absent

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Special relativity calculations

Special relativity scenarios

Light clock

Unstable particles

When atoms move

Speed of light

Ability to measure the speed of light

If there is a universal reference frame present in our universe, but it cannot be detected

Then the choice of which inertial reference frame to consider as the universal reference frame

Would be arbitrary

That would explain as to why the calculations of special relativity work

Since the inertial reference frame that the calculations are being performed in, can always be considered as stationary with respect to the universal reference frame

That would allow moving away from the current inertial reference frame, to calculate time as slowing down, and when returning back to that inertial reference frame, to calculate time as speeding up

Although there may be a logical inconsistency in special relativity

That does not mean that the calculations of special relativity are inaccurate

Or that the calculations of special relativity are any less useful

In this physics model, the rate of time is constant

The elementary strand shaped particle, moves through three dimensional space

Continuously at a single constant speed

As a suggestion

The ability of any object in the model to measure that fixed rate of time

Varies when the object as a whole moves

The suggestion is

That the inability to measure the model's fixed rate of time

Is true, whether the moving object is a mechanical clock, a biological clock, an atomic clock, radioactive decay of an unstable atomic nucleus, or decay of an unstable subatomic particle - anything that is made from the elementary strand shaped particle

As a suggestion, in general in this physics model

Moving clocks measure a slower rate of time than stationary clocks

Because the electrons and protons in an atom in the model, become restricted in their change of movement, the closer the atom gets to the speed of light

There are a large number of relativistic scenarios to consider for the model

The following

Are two examples

The light clock scenario requires that atoms in this physics model change their behaviour when they move

As a suggestion, when a light clock in the model moves

The electrons in the atoms of the light clock emit their particles of light in a more forward direction, than when the light clock is stationary

Another scenario is the rate of decay of an unstable subatomic particle

As a suggestion, the subatomic particles in this physics model, increase their stability when they move

As a suggestion, when a subatomic particle in the model moves, its electric field escapes in a more forward direction, than when the subatomic particle is stationary, lessening the ability of the escaping electric field to destabalise the subatomic particle into decay

The constant speed of the strand shaped particle suggests that when the electron, proton and neutron form an atom in this physics model

The atom will have relativistic behaviour when the atom moves

For example, the shape of the electron orbitals in the atom foreshorten along the direction that the atom is travelling

In this physics model

There is nothing special about the speed of light

And a particle of light experiences events just as any other particle experiences events

Nor is there anything special about faster than light travel

For that is how the elementary strand shaped particle moves

And as a consequence for example, the surface of the electron has a constant movement that is faster than the speed of light

Perhaps one way to think of movement in the model

Is that everything in the atomic world moves at a reasonable, steady pace

And it is us who are very large, and it is us who do things very, very slowly

In general, the measurement of the speed of light as a constant, regardless as to the observer's own motion

Is perhaps because objects become less able to measure relative speed

As they themselves approach the speed of light

Note that, when the speed of light is discussed as being measured as a constant

It is with reference to measuring the speed of light as a round-trip

The measurement of the speed of light over a one-way trip has yet to be measured

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2020) of Derek Muller of the (Veritasium channel) discussing why the one-way speed of light has yet to be measured

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2024) of Jeroen of the (Huygens Optics channel) discussing methods by which the one-way speed of light could perhaps be measured

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2012) of Professor Leonard Susskind's Stanford University lecture discussing special relativity (lecture 1 of 10)

The lecture discusses the derivation of special relativity

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